LEARNING AND MEMORY

LEARNING

• A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
• the process by which experience/practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior.

How Do We Learn 

• associative learning- learning that certain events occur together  

Classical Conditioning 

• the type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes to be elicited by a different formally neutral stimulus 
• Pavlov and Watson 
• UCS, UCR, CS, CR

Operant Conditioning

• the type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishments
• B.F. Skinner 
• Reinforcement & Punishment 

Social Cognitive Learning Theory 

• the type of learning in which behaviors are learned by observing a model 
• Albert Bandura 
• Modeling 

Classical Conditioning 

• an INVOLUNTARY behavior is determined by what PRECEDES it.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR) - naturally occurring response to the UCS 
• neutral stimulus (something that by itself does not elicit a response)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
• Conditioned Response (CR) - the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus 
• the responses (UR &CR) are always the same 
• the NS and the CS are always the same - the NS becomes the CS through learning 

Pavlov 

• Acquisition - we know learning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS
• Contiguity
• the CS should come before the UCS 
• they should be very close together in timing 
• Contingency
• learning is better when the UCS & CS occur together frequently 
• Novelty
• learning is better when the CS is new or unique 
• Extinction 
• acquisition does not last forever; the moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have extinction 
• Reconditioning: the quick relearning of a CR after extinction
• Spontaneous Recovery - sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented
• Generalization - something is so similar to the CS, you get a CR
• Discrimination - something so different from the CS, you do not get a CR 

Operant Conditioning 

• the learner is NOT passive 
• learning is based on consequence 
• behavior is determined by anticipation of what FOLLOWS it 
• voluntary 
• example: dog sits in anticipation of getting a treat 
• both classical & operant conditioning use acquisition, spontaneous recovery, generalization, & extinction 
• a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect 

• Edward L. Thorndike 
• Thorndike's principle that responses are "stamped in" by rewards and "stamped out" by punishments

Shaping - reinforcing small steps along the way to desired behavior 

Reinforcement

• any event that STRENGTHENS the behavior it follows 
• positive and negative 
• Positive: strengthens a response by adding a stimulus after a response 
• Negative: removes something unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
• think avoiding/escaping

Punishment 

• an event that DECREASES the behavior that it follows 
• meant to decrease behavior 
• positive: addition of something unpleasant 
• negative: removal of something pleasant 
• works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh!

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary: an innately reinforcing stimulus 
• Secondary: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Token Economy 

• every time a desired is performed, a token is given 
• they can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) 
• used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools

Reinforcement Schedules 

• Continuous Reinforcement: reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME the behavior is exhibited
• usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association
• acquisition comes really fast 
• but so does extinction
• Partial Reinforcement: reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited
• acquisition comes more slowly 
• but is more resistant to extinction 
• FOUR types of PR schedules 

Ratio Schedules 

• Fixed Ratio: provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses
• Variable Ratio: provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses 
• very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction

Interval Schedules

• Fixed Interval: requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement 
• Variable Interval: requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement 
• very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction

Observational Learning 

• Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll 
• we learn through modeling behavior from others 
• observational learning + operant conditioning = Social Learning Theory 

Latent Learning 

• Edward Toleman 
• latent means hidden 
• sometimes learning is not immediately evident 

Insight Learning 

• some animals learn through the "AH HA" experience 

MEMORY

• the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information 

The Memory Process 

• Encoding - the processing of information into the memory system
• Storage - the retention of encoded material over time
• Retrieval - the process of getting the information out of memory storage

Recall VS Recognition 

• Recall: you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill in the blank tests)
• Recognition: you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple choice tests)

Flashbulb Memory

• a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event 

Types of Memory 

• sensory memory
• short term memory 
• long term memory 

Sensory Memory 

• the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system 
• stored just for an instant, and most gets unprocessed 

Short Term Memory 

• memory that holds a few items briefly 
• 7 digits (plus or minus two)
• the information will be stored into long term memory or forgotten 
• AKA working memory 

Working Memory 

• audio 
• visual 
• integration of audio & visual (controls where your attention lies)

Long Term Memory 

• the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Encoding

• getting the information in our heads 

Automatic Processing 

• unconscious encoding of incidental information 
• you encode space, time, & word meaning without effort 
• things can become automatic with practice 

Effortful Processing 

• encoding that requires attention and conscious effort 
• rehearsal is the most effortful processing technique 
• through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic 

Things to Remember about Encoding

• the next-in-line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next 
• information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered
• taped info played while asleep is registered by the ears, but we do not remember it

Spacing Effect 

•  we encode better when we study or practice over time 
• DO NOT CRAM!!!!!

Serial Positioning Effect 

•  our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Types of Encoding 

• Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words
• Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images 

Tricks to Encode

• use imagery: mental pictures 
• mnemonic devices